Final Analysis

As seen bellow, each of the kings had something significant to add that would build into the Rome we know today. However, the major impacts to do with the rise of the Roman Republic really began towards the end of Servius Tullius' reign. Before this, the reforms made by each king were significant socially and politically, however they did not provoke the revolution. When Servius Tullius first began to distinguish classes, not only in the census, but also in general social events such as the Roman Games, a break was made in society. However, the delicate balance which characterised Servius Tullius' reign was cpompletely destroyed by the final king, L. Tarquinius Superbus.
This started with the very beginning of his reign by not recognising the right of the people to vote their king. Over the years he gradually reduced the people's voice through both trials without assessors and refusing to consult or even keep the numbers of the Senate.
It was this oppression which resulted in the fall of the monarchy, when the Roman people finally rose against the king in the revolution that led the Republic. In fact, Tarquin's oppression was so severe that throughout the duration of the Republic, the word for king, rex, was almost banned from society. If one even spoke of kings in a positive light, they faced trial. This continued into the late republic, as seen when Tiberius Gracchus rose to power, people accused him of wanting to become king, and he was executed soon after the protection of being the people's Tribune wore off.

Tiberius Gracchus and his brother Gaius Gracchus

L. Tarquinius Superbus

(reigning 534-510) L. Tarquinius Superbus (The Proud) was the son or grandson of the fifth king, L. Tarquinius Priscus, son-in-law of the sixth king, Servius Tullius, and married Tullia the younger after she killed his younger brother Arruns and he killed her older sister Tullia. [2]
Encouraged by his wife, Lucius began putting together a group of supporters, primarily from the lower classes, by arguing the illegitimacy of Servius' claim to the throne and how it could be better with the son of a king, (Lucius) on the throne, instead of the slave of a king. [2]
When he had enough support, Lucius walked straight into the Forum with his armed men and sat on the throne, summoning the Fathers by the crier 'into the prescence of King Tarquin'. He then proceeded to vilify Servius' claim to the throne. He stated that Servius was the son of a slave, who, after the foul murder of Tarquinius Priscus, Tullius had taken the throne as a woman's gift, without an assembly or a vote taken, or even the confirmation of the Fathers.[2]

Mid-speech, Servius Tullius entered. Whoever one this battle would be the future ruler of Rome. Desperate, Tarquin picked up Servus Tullius and threw him down the Senate stairs. Here, according to tradition, Tullia drove her cart over the body of her father to finish the job. [2]



And so, with no legitimate claim to the throne, no power over the people and no influence in Senate, Lucius was forced to continue his reign in tyranny.

It is believed that it this tyranny that finally led to the uprising of the people. Gradually, he became more and more powerful, according to Livy, He conducted his trials without any assessors and could therefore decide who to put to death, banish or fine, and not only peole he suspected or disliked, but those who he wanted to exploit for money, one such victim was the father of Julius Iulius Brutus, a name remembered throughout Roman history.[2]

To assert himelf with the Latins, he married his daughter to Octavius Mamilius of Tuscuum, the foremost man in Latin society. With his increasing influence he managed to include the Latins under the treaty made with the Albans, as all Latins traced their origins to Alba Longa. [2] This was the so-called 'Treaty of Ferentia'. [3]

However, most historians agree that despite his tyranny, Tarquinius was a great military leader. With the addition of the Latins to the Roman military he just about doubled the number of soldiers, and took advantage of these numbers against the neighbouring Volcians. [3]

Unfortunately for him, however, this was not enough to quell the people and in 510 he was overthrown by the Revolution that established the Republic, led by Julius Iunius Brutus. [1]

Servius Tullius

(reigned from 578-535) The origins of Servius Tullius are unknown, however, H. H. Scullard believes he is of Latin descent, rather than the other possibility of yet another Etruscan king. [1] Scullard also believes that the story of his Etruscan wife being Tarquin's daughters, was invented to illustrate the hereditary nature of the monarchy. [1]
Livy, however states that he was chosen by the queen to be raised as one of their own as a result of the fates marking him for greatness. When he was very young he was found sleeping with fire enveloping his head, but when he woke of his own accord, the flames disappeared and he was unharmed. [2]

He took to the throne directly as a result of the queen. The king had been shot with an arrow by the sons of Ancus Marcius, and while he was on his death bed, the queen publicly announced that the king was on the mend and had announced Servius Tullius to rule in his absence. By the time it was discovered that the king was dead, Servius was already on the throne. He was the first king not elected by the people since Romulus.


He was notorius for so many radical changes in both politics and the military, some of which would most likely be the start of his demise.
'Servius Tullius is credited with a reform, military in origin and political in development, which had far-reaching consequences. Its object was to supersede the old tribes and 'gentile' curiae, to take a census of the people and to reclassify them on the basis of wealth and age in order to meet the growing military needs of the day...' [1]
This action alone would be enough to separate the classes, perhaps even set the lower classes against their social superiors. In particular when it came to the meeting of the centuries, in which a system of group-voting prevailed. As the centuries vote in order of precedence, that is, from the highest to the lowest of ranks. So the centuries of the cavalry (18) and the first class (80) together made 98, they obtained a clear majority, and so, the rich, despite being smaller en mass, could outvote the poor.
However, according to Scullard 'this was by no means unfair as it was they who had to bear the chief burden of fighting and financing the wars.'

Also considerably significant was the construction of a stone wall which turned Rome into a walled city, known as the 'Servian Wall'.

The treaty with the Latins is also atrributed to Servius. According to Livy, Serviuss constantly spoke of their common recognition of the Deity Diana. And so, he beseeched the Latins to join with the Romans in the building of a temple to her, this became the famous temple of the Ephesian Diana (currently known as the temple of Artemis). [1][2] 

Temple of Diana (before it was destroyed in 405 AD

L. Tarquinius Priscus

(reigning 616-579) Lucius (originally Lucumo) Tarquinius Priscus (meaning Tarquin the Elder), unlike the kings before him, didn't start out as a Roman nobleman. In fact, it is believed that he is descended from Demaratus, a Corinthian who migrated to Tarquinii, Etruria. When his father died, Lucumo inherited all his property and became a very wealthy man. [2] He then married an Etruscan noblewoman who, embarrassed by his low status, persuaded him to move to Rome and achieve a higher status. [2]
According to legend, when they had got only as far as Janiculum, an eagle swooped down and took his cap, only to return it safely to his head, an omen that he was destined for great things.[2]
The fact that he was a foreigner and wealthy drew attention to him, and as a result he gradually became part of the upper social circles of Rome. Soon, the King, Ancus Marcius, began relying on him as a consultant, both in matters of state and more domestic issues. [1][2] Finally, after passing every test of character and ability, he was appointed by the King's will, guardian to his children. [2]
This quick ascension in social status clearly demonstrates his charismatic and ambitious attributes, but more importantly signifies the multicultural nature of Rome at the time.
When Ancus Marcius was dead, Tarquinius sent away the two sons as they were the most logical successors and were now of a suitable age to reign. And, his persuasive power was so strong that during his speech about previous kings being foreigners and how much he had learnt under Ancus Marcius's direction, the people of Rome elected him king. [2]
Within days of the ceremony, Tarquinius was already adding 100 men to the Senate (all up 300 now), who were later to be called the 'Lesser Houses', most of which were unfathomably loyal supporters of the king.[2]
This, despite his obvious choice in people who would always support him and give him the extra support he needed to pass anything through the Senate, was clearly a way of giving more power to the people.



Cloaca Maxima

 Tarquinius is attributed with the building of the Cloaca Maxima, literally meaning Greatest Sewer, which is one of the earliest drainage systems ever, built specifically to drain the Forum into the Tiber. [1] A revolutionary system that set a higher standard of living for all people.

Tarquinius also allocated space for what is now the Circus Maximus, in which, spots were allocated to patricians to build stands from which to watch the 'Roman' or 'Great Games'. [1][2] At first they were celebrated on occasions of especial solemnity, but as they became more popular they became an annual affair.
These games divided the people into clearer classes, as the higher classes all had seats allocated to them which they themselves had had built.

Ancus Marcius

(reigned 642-617) Ancus Marcius, a direct relative of Numa Pompilius (his mother was the daughter of Numa Pompilius, was chosen by the people and confirmed in the Senate after the death of Tullus Hostilius.[2][3]


Coin: Ancus Marcius left, equestrian statue right



Acus was determined to bring religion back as a major part of Roman culture as it had been during his grandfather's reign, and so made the Pontifex Maxima copy out the state offices of religion as they had been organised before Tullus Hostillius and set them out in a public place.

Despite intending to rule with peace, Ancus fully understood that he needed to be strong in war too, or Rome would fall. This was tested when the Latins made an incursion into Roman territory and refused the Roman redress. And after consulting with the Senate, who urged him that a just and righteous war was necessary, war was declared on the Latins by the ceremonial act of throwing a spear into their territory.[2]


Throughout the war that ensued, Rome continued to grow from the various victories against the Latins. However, after the Latin retaking of Politorium (Latins had previously had it as their capitol and they now reclaimed it from Roman territory), the Romans razed the city. Afterwards a major battle took place in Medullia, which after a long effort, the Romans won, taking a lot of refugees to Rome with them. To have space for all the refugees, Ancus Marcius extended the city wall to include the Aventine Hill, where the district by the altar of Venus Murcia was given to the Latin refugees.

Ancus also included the Janiculum into the Roman boundaries, but not for space, this was a purely tactical move to prevent enemies from taking such a strong position. To include the Janiculum in the city, he not only built the wall around it, but he built a bridge across the Tiber for convenience of travel. It was the first bridge to cross the Tiber and was known as the Pons Sublicius. [1][2][3][4]

With the increase in population also came an increase in crime, and so Ancus Marcius built a the first Roman prison, overlooking the Forum. [2]

Another significant act was the founding of Ostia, a city at the mouth of the Tiber allowing access to the sea and trade routes to expand their empire. Salt pans were built on either side of the river and the temple of Jupiter Feretrius was enlarged.

Tullus Hostillius

(reigned 673-642) Tullus Hostilius, the grandson of a Roman General, Hostilius, was the chosen king by the people, their choice confirmed by the Senate. According to Livy [2], Tullius was 'Convinced that the vigour of the State was becoming enfeebled through inaction'.

He sought conflict with the Albans on the pretext that Alban peasants had been 'carrying off plunder' [2] in Roman territory, despite  Roman peasants doing the same. When both armies drew close, the Albans king, Mettius Fufetius, sent out a request for consultation.



Battle of Horatii and Curiatii sixteenth-century fresco by Cavalier d'Arpino



In this meeting between Fufetius and Hostilius, it was decided that it would be too risky for both cities to go to war with the oncoming power of the Estruscans so near by, and instead they selected brothers from each army to fight on their behalf. The brothers Horatii fought for the Romans, and the Curiatii for the Albans. Before the fight took place a treaty was made between the two peoples, signifying that 'the nation whose representatives proved victorious should receive the peaceable submission of the other', in order to prevent further conflict.[2]

After defeating two of his enemies, Horatius (of the Horatii brothers) allowed the final of the Curiatii brothers to live after he conceded defeat, leaving Rome victorious. And so it was that Tullus Hostilius conquered Alba Longa, the City from which Rome was born.

Numa Pompilius

(reigned 715-673) It is believed that Numa Pompilius was chosen after the death of Romulus by the Sabines. According to H. H. Scullard [1] he built a palace (the Regia), near the Forum in order to be closer to the Capitol, as opposed to his previous home on the Quirinal.

Tradition says that he is the priest-king[1] who organised the priestly colleges to Mars, Jupiter and the Vestal Virgins, as well as changing the religious calendar from a ten month calendar to a twelve moth calendar. [1]

Temple of Janus

Livy [2] states that 'he built the Temple of Janus at the foot of the Aventine as an index of peace and war, to signify when it was open that the State was under arms, and when it was shut that all the surrounding nations were at peace'

He is also notable for the creation of the religious figure head pontifex maximus, [2] a term still used by the pope today. This position was given to a Senator, and he then became responsible for all regulations bearing on religion - including the victim, the temple, the god and the day of each and every sacrifice.[2] It also included several religious practices required by the people on a regular basis. This significant change in the role of religion in society severly impacted the foundations of their society as it had become more about appeasing the gods and living a righteous life than it was about land, as it had been in previous years.

Numa also made efforts to distinguish between the days that business could
take place and those it could not. This is because, as Livy puts it 'it would sometimes be advisable that there should be no business transacted with the people.' [2]

And to Numa Pompilius is credited a whole 43 year reign of complete peace.[2]

Romulus

(reigned 753-716)

The MYTH

The myth of the foundation of Rome is common knowledge, however, I believe it is worth including to give some context.

According to legend (and Livy [2]), In the hills of Alba Longa, King Proca named his elder son, Numitor as the future king of Alba Longer. However, his younger brother, Amulius, violently expelled his brother, taking the crown for himself. In the process Amulius murdered his nephews and made his niece, Rhea Silvia, a Vestal virgin, depriving her of any status or supporters.



Etruscan statue of She-wolf made around the fifth century BC
The twins were added in the 15th century,
thought to be by Antonio Pollaiolo

 After she was forcibly violated by Amulius, Rhea Silvia gave birth to twin boys. But she named Mars as their father, possibly because she thought the fault would appear less heinous if a deity were responsible. Disgraced, the Vestal no longer sheltered her and Amulius had her thrown in prison and ordered her sons to be drowned in the River Tiber. However, as the water was flooding, the soldiers responsible for drowning the boys simply floated the cradle down river, believing that the river would do the job for them. However, the cradle washed ashore and a thirsty She-Wolf was drawn by the sound of their cries. She fed them as if they were her own children. Not long after, a flock-master, Faustulus found them and raised them as his own with his wife Larentia.

Years later, during the celebrations of Lupercalia, a brigade captured Remus, the brother of Romulus, and brought him before the king. The principle charge that he was accused of was invading Numitor's lands (the grandfather of Romulus and Remus) and was therefore given to Numitor to punish. However, Numitor remembered what had happened to his two grandsons, and, in comparing their age and where they had grown up, as well as Remus' tale of a twin brother, he reached the conclusion that it was his grandson before him, and this was the chance he had waited for to overthrow Amulius.

Faustulus finally decided to tell Romulus what he believed about their origins.

Both brothers individually put together a band of men and encircled the king. Together, the two brothers won the battle that ensued and killed the king.

The government was transferred back to Numitor by the people and the two brothers left to form their own city at the place where they were found. Given that they were twins, neither had a higher claim of seniority and sole rulership of their city and so they left it to be decided by Fate.

Remus wanted to settle on the Aventine and Romulus, the Palatine. Six vultures alighted on the Aventine and Remus believed he was therefore the sole ruler and namesake of their city, but just as the news reached Romulus, twelve vultures landed on the Palatine. Therefore, Romulus was given sole rulership of Rome. The two brothers fought and, unsurprisingly, Remus was killed.

During his reign, Romulus is said to have increased the population by allowing all outlaws and refugees from other cities to live in the asylum or sanctuary on the Capitol, as well as staging the famous rape of the Sabine women,[1] (although at the time rape didn't have the same sexual connotations as it does today, it simply meant to forcibly take). And, according to legend, the King of the Sabines, Titus Tatius captured the Capitol through the treachery of a Roman watchman's daughter, Tarpeia/Tarpeya. However, the Sabine women prevented bloodshed between their families and their new husbands. Together they became one people, Romulus ruling on the Palatine Hill and Titus Tatius on the Capitoline. However this is questioned by both modern & ancient historians and so, as H. H. Scullard says 'no great confidence can be felt in this historicity'.

Romulus is also acredited with the formation of the Senate, however it was rather a body of advisors selected by the king. Originally, Romulus chose 100 hundred men, all of which were leading members of partrician 'clans', but this was increased with the arrival of Tatius and became 200 men. Once appointed the men became Senators for life and vacancies were only filled by the king.[1]

Sources

As you may have noticed, throughout this blog I have posted various [1]s and [2]s. But unfortunately these couldn't be linked so I had to put them all in one post.


[1] (book) H. H. Scullard F. B. A., F. S. A.,, A History of the Roman World 753-146 B.C., p. 28-48 (Methuen & Co. Ltd; March 28, 1935). Scullard's primary concern of the book is about the Republic, but to set the scene he includes a whole chapter on the regal period and how the kings led to the foundation of the republic. It was also particularly helpful in understanding the lineage of the kings and their major impacts on the people. His incredible descriptions of the events are presented with a little arrative but without any bias apparent, all of his major points acredited in his footnotes.


[2] (book online) Titus Livius (Livy), (translated by Rev. Canon Roberts), The History of Rome, Vol. 1, Book 1, (from 1.1-1.60), (J. M. Dent & Sons, Ltd.; 1905) [from the website http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Livy/Livy01.html]. Livy gives a detailed account of the whole 243 years up until the very, moment when Tarquinius Superbus was banned from entering Rome. As a Roman, he is expected to have a certain level of bias, but he is generally regarded as a reliable source.


[3] (website) F. Cavazzi, The Roman Kings, (presumed self-published; last updates April 7, 2012) [http://www.roman-empire.net/kings/kings-index.html] . As this is a website with no reference points credited and nothing to back up their statements, one cannot take this to be a truely reliable source. However, Cavazzi's description of the Roman kings gives a detailed account of thevents throughout the monarchy, unfortunately, however, is not very clear in distinguishing between myth and fact.


[4] (website) Maria Milani, ancient roman kings, (assumed self-published;'I update the information continuously but by and large I would say the bulk of it was put together during 2005-2006' [this is taken from home page: http://www.mariamilani.com/ancient_rome.htm]), [http://www.mariamilani.com/ancient_rome/rome_ancient_roman_kings.htm]. This website fabulously sums up the events during Regal Rome, however, as none of it is acredited, one cannot rely on its information solely.

Thank you so much to these four sources.